Prehistoric Rhayna (Pacifica)

Female figurine from the Early Neolithic period. Nea-gy, 9th millenium BCE

Prehistoric Rhayna or Prehistoric Moellia is the period between the Palaeolithic and the emergence of writing and metal working in the area of Moellia, limited by the Cordilian Sea to the west, the Eastern Cordilian Desert to the east, Northern Prostasia and Northern Defteros to the north, and Southern Prostasia and Southern Defteros to the south.

The condition of archaeological remains in Moellia range from excellent in the interior of the country and in the arid deserts of Rhayna and Alla-gy, to greatly deteriorated near water sources like coasts and rivers, which makes the investigation of the history of some places specially challenging.

The Lower Palaeolithic witnessed the emergence of a population of Homo erectus hunter-gatherers who lived in the caves of the Prostasia range and Mt. Atzali, and in numerous open-air sites near water sources in Rhayna. They were producers of a lithic industry of the Acheulean type, and the funerary remains, found in the cave of Apamea, indicate the existence of solidarity and the practice of healing between the members of a group.

During the upper Palaeolithic, Moellia was probably occupied by modern man. The Apamea cave presents signs of all three lithic periods and lithic industries of Homo erectus, Homo sapiens, and a possible subspecies of Homo heidelbergensis.

The Mesolithic period in Moellia began around 22,000 years ago, following the end of the Last Glaciation Period Peak, and it was characterized by a shift in human settlement patterns, as communities retreated from the interior regions to the larger rivers and the basin of Lake Kryo. The changing climate and landscape prompted the development of microlithic technology, proto-cultures, and a transition to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

The Early Neolithic period marked a significant transition towards a farming-based economy in Moellia. Agriculture became the primary livelihood for communities, encouraging sedentary lifestyles and the establishment of permanent settlements. Shared architectural characteristics emerged in the separated populations of the region, reflecting differentiation in lifestyle in an originally homogeneous immigrant population. Food preparation primarily occurred in hearths and ovens inside houses, fostering communal life and social interaction. Representations of the skulls of different animals and preservations of these have also been found in these archaeologic settlements, among these the skulls of black vultures, mountain goats, camels, among others.

The Middle Neolithic was characterized by settlement expansion and the intensification of the farming economy. Land was cleared for grazing fields and arable lands, leading to the cultivation of new crops like rice, millet, and buckwheat. Sheep and goats were raised for meat and milk, while hemp and ramie were used to weave garments. Communities were socially organized into nuclear families, with settlements inhabited by a few hundred individuals.

The Late Neolithic period witnessed further settlement expansion and economic diversification in Moellia. The introduction of metalworking techniques revolutionized the economy, leading to the widespread adoption of bronze tools and weapons. This period also saw an increase in warfare, invasion, and the propagation of slavery, as evidenced by archaeological findings.

The Final Neolithic period marked the transition from the Neolithic stone tools to the metal-based economy of the Early Bronze Age. This transition occurred gradually as communities in Nea-gy began importing bronze and copper and using basic bronze-working techniques from Eastern Cordilia. Warfare and slavery propagated throughout Moellia during this period due to the population pressure on the river valleys and lake basins, with some settlements showing signs of pillage, abandonment, and repopulation.

The early Neolithic period saw the appearance of the first hearths, pestles, and large millstones following the arrival of agriculture to the region, indicating the start of sedentarization and settlement in permanent villages, which was quickly adopted. Representations of the skulls of different animals and preservations of these have also been found in this archaeologic settlements, among these the skulls of black vultures, mountain goats, camels, among others.

By 5,000 BCE, the previously seemingly unorganized settlements grew into cities, a ruling class emerged that formed small city states, and certain populations of Moellia slowly adopted a shared writing.

Geographical and archaeological setting

The prehistory of Moellia happens in the historical region of Moellia in Central Cordilia, around the Prostasia and Defteros ranges. Moellia corresponds to the entirety of present-day UPRAN. Three regions are distinguished within this area: Rhaynan desert, Alla-gyan desert, and Nea-gyan steppe. Furthermore, there is a strong cultural similarity observed throughout Moellian prehistory between the three regions.

Rhayna is a flat, desert region with an average elevation of 200-300 meters, extending east of the Cordilian Sea and west of Prostasia. Most of the region doesn't receive sufficient rainfall for rain fed agriculture, with an average of less than 250 mm annually. However, the valleys near water sources are suitable for irrigation agriculture, specially the basin of Lake Kryo.

Alla-gy, however, is an alluvial slope that stretches from the northern peaks of Prostasia and Defteros down to the border with Hystaiga. Similar to Rhayna, it doesn't have much rainfall through out most of the year, but unlike the previous, it's special geography, boxed between two mountain ranges, allows for strong winds from the Cordilian Sea to rise along the slope to heights where it condenses above Prostasia and Defterods, allowing for the largest rivers of Moellia, namely, Apoala.

The climate in Nea-gy is milder, with more moderate temperatures and rainfall rates, allowing for a savannah like climate, with wet winters and dry summers.

These conditions have allowed for both locations were remains can be found in extreme quality, with even the occasional finding of mummies in the deserts and mountains, and for locations were remains have been lost forever to the natural elements, like in the sedimentary banks near rivers and lakes.

Lower Palaeolithic

Hand axe from Northern Rhayna, Salyras province

The Lower Paleolithic (~1.5 million to 115,000 BCE) is the longest Paleolithic era, spanning from Homo erectus' first appearance in Moellia to the Last Glacial Period's onset. Initially, it featured a modern-like warm climate and basic stone tools, and Homo heidelbergensis was present alongside Homo erectus. The latter half saw Homo erectus dominate as Homo heidelbergensis depopulated the area, with cooler temperatures and more temperate semi-arid regions. Bifaces replaced simpler stone tools, and Moellia's population became exclusively Homo erectus, responsible for the region's early lithic industry.

Middle Palaeolithic

The middle Paleolithic (~115,000-30,000 BCE) lacks significant human presence in the area, except for scattered fragments of a theorized Homo heidelbergensis subspecies near Apoala River. Further evidence is needed to fully understand their regional existence. Human remains are otherwise absent until 30,000 BCE, resulting in a gap in Moellia's early human record.

Upper Palaeolithic

Skull of a Homo sapiens found in southern Alla-gy, denominated "Corope I"

The Upper Paleolithic (~30,000-20,000 BCE) in Moellia begins with Homo sapiens' spread through the region during the start of the Last Glacial Period Peak, and culminates with the end of the Last Glacial Period Peak by 20,000 BCE, with their full settlement across Moellia by 15,000 BCE. This period features the region's highest food availability in the Palaeolithic during the latter half due to more moderate temperatures. However, the glacial retreat would bring more extreme temperatures and droughts, prompting human migration to river valleys and the basin of Lake Kryo.

Mesolithic

Mesolithic Moellia spans 22,000-11,700 BCE, from the Last Glaciation's peak to the Holocene and the Neolithic Revolution. Human groups retreated to larger rivers and Lake Kryo's basin as temperatures rose. Population growth, vegetation scarcity, and large mammal migration southward likely promoted microlithic tech and hunter-gatherer culture. Most mesolithic sites are near water sources, with some mid-Mesolithic pottery and textile evidence in the Southwestern Complex and Tipo Valley, but significant advancements occurred towards the end of the period and the Neolithic's beginning.

The start of the post-glaciation peak period led to rapid neolithic adoption as fertile lands shrank. Human populations gathered around water, fostering protocultures and potential conflicts. Characteristic of this era is widespread microlithic technology, later supplanted by macrolithic with polished tools. Small structures with astronomical or ritual purposes, often by major rivers, suggest early culture and belief.

Some humans ventured beyond the region, returning with non-native seeds that naturalized in river basins. As the neolithic spread, mesolithic practices fell in favor. People began farming riverbeds post-flood, establishing permanent, sedentary communities, and herded livestock in mountainous grasslands.

Alla-gy

The mesolithic began late in Alla-gy's north compared to other regions of Moellia, around 16,000 BCE and concluded at 8,000 BCE. Lithic technology of the time showed a prevalent use of microliths, except in later-developed areas like Alla-gy's north, where macroliths persisted. Despite initial resistance, specially near mountain beds of Alla-gy, nomadic groups gradually assimilated into larger, sedentary populations as the climate harshened. Still to this day there are nomadic populations in the region, although their numbers dwindle.

The begginings of agriculture

Rare Late Neolithic bronze sickle blade. 8,500 BCE, Tipo Valley Sphere.

Neolithic Moellia defines the period between 11,700-3,300 BCE, of significant relevance to the development in the Moellia region characterized by the advent of agriculture along the fertile riverbanks and lake shores. This period saw the emergence of practices including but not limited to: annual farming, the domestication of animals like goats and sheep in the mountainous areas, and the construction of more complex architectural structures. The region's neolithic period is typically divided into four distinct phases: the Early, Middle, Late, and Final Neolithic periods.

The Early Neolithic in Moellia, starting around 11,700 BCE, signified a shift towards agriculture-based societies. The spread of agriculture was uneven, with some regions like Rhayna and Nea-gy adopting it earlier than others such as Alla-gy, which remained Mesolithic until 8,000 BCE.

The Late Neolithic period brought further advancements with the expansion of settlements and intensification of agriculture. The clearing of shrublands and floodplains to create grazing fields and farmland led to a more diversified diet, with crops like rice, millet, and buckwheat being cultivated. Domestication of sheep and goats for meat and milk production was another significant development, alongside the use of hemp and ramie for textile production.

The transition to the Final Neolithic period indicated a transfer towards a metal-based economy as the Rhaynan Bronze Age began. This shift was propelled by the introduction of bronze and copper from Eastern Cordilia to Nea-gy, which quickly disseminated throughout Moellia. The integration of metalworking techniques signaled the gradual end of the Neolithic farming and herding lifestyle.